Sustainable Architecture

Sustainability is defined as the quality of not being harmful to the environment or depleting natural resources, and thereby supporting long-term ecological balance. 

One of the most waste-generating industries is that of architecture. Recent technologies have allowed designers and architects to adopt sustainable methods when design buildings. The following are examples of how sustainability is being applied to architecture. 

Manitoba Hydro Place

Manitoba Hydro Place is the headquarters building of Manitoba Hydro, the electric power and natural gas utility in the province of Manitoba, Canada. The building's bio-climatic, energy-efficient design features a 115 m tall solar chimney, a geo-thermal heat system, natural air ventilation which provides 100% fresh air all year round, and a one-meter-wide double exterior wall with computer-controlled motorized vents that adjust the building's exterior skin throughout the day and evening. Together, the various elements of the design enable a 70% energy savings over most other buildings. 

Namba Parks

Namba Parks is an office and shopping complex located in Osaka, Japan. Built in a former baseball stadium (thus reducing the use of construction materials and waste), it is considered to be one of the most Green areas of Osaka. It consists of ecological features such as waterfalls, trees, lawns and ponds. This makes a difference in comparison to the urban environment surrounding the area.

Condé Nast Building

The Condé Nast Building, officially known as 4 Times Square, is a modern skyscraper in Times Square in Manhattan, New York City. 4 Times Square is one of the most important examples of green design in skyscrapers in the United States. Environmentally friendly gas-fired absorption chillers, along with a high-performing insulating and shading curtain wall, ensure that the building does not need to be heated or cooled for the majority of the year. The building also uses solar technology.

Salesforce Tower

Formerly known as the Transbay Tower, the Salesforce Tower is a 326 m skyscraper under construction in San Francisco. It is a highly sustainable in design, with a rooftop park to absorb CO2, wind turbines and solar panels to generate electricity, 100% natural air ventilation and the ability to capture and recycle rainwater. 

References

Achieving Climate Neutrality Through Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy. (2015). [online] Available at: http://www.laccdbuildsgreen.org/docs/energytoolkit/Presentations&Papers/Neutrality_Through_Conservation_and_Renewable_Energy.pdf [Accessed 30 Jan. 2015].

Wikipedia, (2015). Condé Nast Building. [online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cond%C3%A9_Nast_Building [Accessed 30 Jan. 2015].

Wikipedia, (2015). Manitoba Hydro Place. [online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manitoba_Hydro_Place [Accessed 30 Jan. 2015].

Wikipedia, (2015). Namba Parks. [online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namba_Parks [Accessed 30 Jan. 2015].

Wikipedia, (2015). Salesforce Tower. [online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesforce_Tower [Accessed 30 Jan. 2015].

Wikipedia, (2015). Sustainable design. [online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_design#Sustainable_architecture [Accessed 30 Jan. 2015].

Ergonomic and Universal Design

We generally do not notice when something is designed properly since it functions as it is supposed to, but we do notice bad design. This is where ergonomics comes in. 

Ergonomics is the study of the human body and how it interacts with its surrounding environment, be it through making use of a product or a system. Even more so today with the advances in technology, it would be quite risky for the company's credibility to produce something which does not compliment the physical needs of the consumer.

Ergonomics has two major objectives: to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency with which work and other activities are carried out, as well as to improve safety, reduce stress and increase comfort. Ergonomically-designed products have to be given the utmost importance especially in the work place as this will increase the workers' productivity, increase efficiency and in general, make the work environment a comfortable place to work in. 

Vertebra armchair - Emilio Ambasz
It is said to be the first automatically adjustable office chair,
designed to respond and adapt to the movements
of the user's body and provide comfort and support

Another aspect which goes hand in hand with ergonomic design is universal or inclusive design.

Universal design refers to the importance of products which cater for the needs of everyone. This aim behind this type of design is to integrate everyone irrespective of physical ability, age, mental capacity, or any other situation. 

Universal design aims to accommodate people with special needs, children, the elderly, and others who find themselves outside the parameters of what is normally considered acceptable or average.

Universal Design focuses mainly on creating designs that are functional and usable by everyone, giving importance to accommodating the different needs and abilities of each individual. In order to do this, products designed for a specific purpose must simple to use, easy to understand and able to communicate information easily and effectively. This will lead to the minimization of accidents, while still being ergonomic so as to reduced the amount of physical effort required to perform tasks. 

It is of utmost importance for designers and design companies to incorporate ergonomic and universal design in their design process. it is a responsibility which needs to be taken seriously as it could effect the customers', hopefully in a positive way so as to make life safer and better for everyone, irrespective of the physical situations they may be in. 

References

Ergonomics and Design. (2015). [online] Available at: http://www.iieom.org/ieom2011/pdfs/IEOM130.pdf [Accessed 28 Jan. 2015].

Inclusivedesigntoolkit.com, (2015). What is inclusive design?. [online] Available at: http://www.inclusivedesigntoolkit.com/betterdesign2/whatis/whatis.html#p110 [Accessed 28 Jan. 2015].

Metmuseum.org, (2015). Emilio Ambasz and Giancarlo Piretti: "Vertebra" armchair (1989.48) | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art. [online] Available at: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1989.48 [Accessed 28 Jan. 2015].

nibusinessinfo.co.uk, (2015). [online] Available at: https://www.nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/importance-ergonomics [Accessed 28 Jan. 2015].

Postmodernism

A style that was in vogue between the 1970s and the 1990s was Postmodernism. Evolving as a movement against the International Style, this style wanted to rid the world of the rigidity, clarity and simplicity of that style in favour of a more complex and artistic one. 

The Postmodernists often referred to the past for inspiration, and incorporated a mixture of styles, bright colours and decoration into their designs. The style brought about a sense of freedom in both art and design, often with witty underlying meanings. It was the time of questioning and contrasting. For example, precious materials were combined with cheap ones; products designed in a minimalist way, but also elaborately ornamented. 

According to modernists, less is more. Postmodernists believed that less is a bore. They believed that we needed as much information and references as possible to determine our own individual conclusion. They were in favour of collages and repetition of the same patterns, since they believed that they were more interesting. Postmodernists wanted to challenge the audience and force them to ask questions. In architecture, buildings were rid of their blandness in favour of more artistic and cultural designs, For example, the Las Vegas strip is a pure example of this. In just one stretch of space, one can find different styles and cultures which create a fun and interesting atmosphere. 

Postmodernism also had its critics. Some objected that the style was unnecessarily ornamented, and that there was too much of an obsession with recycling the past in order to create something new. Despite this, the Postmodernist movement was effective in getting the world to question why things are the way they are, and this factor s still influential in today's world. 

Prominent designers and groups at the time include the Memphis Group, Studio Alchymia, Michael Graves, Ettore Sottsass and Aldo Rossi.

Juicy Salif lemon juicer by Philippe Starck

Kettle designed by Michael Graves

Carlton bookcase by Ettore Sottsass

Consumer's Rest Lounge Chair by Frank Schreiner

References

Dezeen, (2011). Postmodernism: Style and Subversion 1970-1990 at the V&A - Dezeen. [online] Available at: http://www.dezeen.com/2011/09/26/postmodernism-style-and-subversion-1970-1990-at-the-va/ [Accessed 26 Jan. 2015].

Dhub.org, (2015). Postmodernism: the movement we love to hate | D*Hub. [online] Available at: http://www.dhub.org/postmodernism-the-movement-we-love-to-hate/ [Accessed 26 Jan. 2015].

Kent, S. (2015). Postmodernism: Style and Subversion 1970-1990, V&A | Visual arts reviews, news & interviews | The Arts Desk. [online] Theartsdesk.com. Available at: http://www.theartsdesk.com/visual-arts/postmodernism-style-and-subversion-1970-1990-va [Accessed 26 Jan. 2015].

Vam.ac.uk, (2015). Postmodernism - Victoria and Albert Museum. [online] Available at: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/p/postmodernism/ [Accessed 26 Jan. 2015].

Vam.ac.uk, (2015). Postmodernism - Victoria and Albert Museum. [online] Available at: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/p/postmodernism/ [Accessed 26 Jan. 2015].

The influence of Pop Design in the furniture industry

The term 'Pop Design' was coined in the 1950s, and as a movement it started off in London as an Independent Group. Due to the negative impact of the war, designers were questioning the role of design in society. Contrary to the belief in the 1930s, functionality in design was questioned. Movements against functionalism emerged; designers wanted to treat society as though it were art itself, rather than classifying art as a separate entity. The designs of the past were regarded to be inhuman, cold and outdated. Influenced by the hippies, pop music and the 'flower power', the style of the day was bombarded with bold, symbolic colours and the use of easily-available material such as plastics and PVC. 

One of the industries which were highly influenced by the Pop movement was furniture design. As shall be seen in an example below, designers took a subject that was in vogue at the time and used that as a starting point for their designs. More-over, they used these designs as a means of commenting on what was going on in society. For example, the Bocca sofa or Marilyn sofa produced by Studio 65 in 1972. This is a good example of how pop design was influenced by what was going on in the Pop Art movements as well as the highlight of the day: Marilyn Monroe. Just like Andy Warhol's silk screen prints of Marilyn Monroe, the sofa is so iconic that it is easily identifiable with the movie star herself, and reflects her influence at the time. The sofa in itself is quite simple in concept: an over-sized shape of bold, red lips in a seemingly cartoonish manner, which still functions perfectly as a sofa despite its structure. 

Bocca sofa - Studio 65

Side view of the Bocca sofa - Studio 65

Another characteristic which is synonymous with Pop Design is the use of bold colours in conjunction with minimalistic designs, specifically done so as to catch the viewers' attention. An example of this is the Malitte lounge furniture by Roberto Sebastian. At first glance, the piece seems to be a pointless mass of green blocks with a yellow circle in the centre. What is interesting is the fact that automatically, the viewer's eyes seem to turn towards the yellow in the centre, which in turn evokes a sense of curiosity to learn more about the piece. Despite this, the viewer is given the opportunity to freely interpret the piece.

Malitte lounge furniture - Roberto Sebastian

As mentioned before, Pop designs were known for their use of material such as plastic. This can be further seen in the introduction of inflatable furniture. Despite the low durability of the material, this invention seemed to appeal to a younger generation since it could allow the user to travel anywhere and literally take their furniture with them, and thus it became quite popular at the time. Although they proved to be uneconomical and environmentally unhealthy in the long-run, today we can still see the impact of these designs since we are still able to purchase similar items such as air mattresses and lilos.

Newspaper advert which shows the promotion of inflatable furniture

'Aerospace' collection - Quasar Khanh

Pop furniture designs seemed to have been a highlight of the Pop Design movement since it reflected the societal influences on people's lifestyle. Through bold, symbolic colours and witty yet effective designs, it retranslated the materialistic mentaility of the 1960s. 

References

Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - Homes - Design - 1960s. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/homes/design/period_1960s.shtml [Accessed 23 Jan. 2015].

Design Addict, (2015). Quasar Khanh, pioneer of inflatable furniture. [online] Available at: http://www.designaddict.com/blog/2012/03/15/Quasar-Khanh-pioneer-inflatable-furniture [Accessed 23 Jan. 2015].

Theartstory.org, (2015). Pop Art Movement, Artists and Major Works | The Art Story. [online] Available at: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-pop-art.htm [Accessed 23 Jan. 2015].

Voicesofeastanglia.com, (2015). Blow Up - Quasar Khanh’s Inflatable Furniture - Voices of East Anglia. [online] Available at: http://www.voicesofeastanglia.com/2013/07/quasar-khanh-inflatable-furniture.html [Accessed 23 Jan. 2015].

Scandinavian Design - the philosophy, characteristics and inspiration behind the movement

Scandinavian Design refers to the movement that emerged in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland. Although it was relatively unknown to the rest of Europe and the United States of America, Scandinavian Design in itself had been established since the early 1930s. Prominent designers of the movement include Alvar Aalto, Arne Jacobsen, Verner Panton and Poul Henningsen.

Europe in the 1930s

Early 20th Century Europe was dominated by the International Style - one whose focus was primarily on architecture. Sleek lines and geometric shapes were the order of the day. The main aim of architects such as Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius was to come up with design that were not excessively ornamented, modern and functional. This was aided by the advance in technology, which also helped to bring about experimentation with new materials such as steel, iron, glass and concrete. Prominent designers of the International Style include Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Eileen Gray, Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen. The latter two designers were Finnish, thus having their roots in the International Style was what partially influenced them in their designs as the Scandinavian Design movement further developed. 

Back to Scandinavia Design 

The term 'Scandinavian Design' originated from a design show that traveled the United States of America and Canada from 1954 to 1957. The exhibit featured works by native Scandinavian designers, and through it, the meaning behind the term 'Scandinavian Design' was established: simple designs with a touch of flair and beauty, primarily inspired by nature and the northern climate, with a strong emphasis on making the same designs available to everyone irrelevant of their social standing.  

'Enhancing and facilitating daily life through aesthetically pleasing objects and making them accessible to each and every person.'

The phrase above sums up what essentially is the philosophy behind Scandinavian Design. This is due to several reasons, the first being the geographical restrictions of the Scandinavian countries in themselves. The rough climate and cold winters forced the people to focus on making their homes comfortable, warm and above everything else, livable. That is the primary reason why most of the notable works of Scandinavian design revolve around interiors: furniture, lighting and textiles for example. In their work, designers focused on practicality. They achieved this through simple lines and no excessive decoration (just like the designs of the International Style). 

Scandinavian countries became industrialized relatively late in comparison to the rest of the world. This enabled them to preserve traditional crafts fairly longer. The element of survival also plays an important roles in Scandinavian countries. Due to their limited natural resources, they focused more on function and practicality in order to survive. Being surrounded by nature the majority of the time, Scandinavian natives developed a sense of respect for what is around them. This helped them in making the most efficient use out of their limited resources, with natural material such as wood, clay, leather, linen, wool being used for the construction of various items. Nature was also a source of inspiration for many designers, one of which being Alvar Aalto, who designed the famous Savoy Vase (also known as the Aalto Vase). The vase’s unusual shape is said to be taken from the undulating shorelines of Finland’s thousands of lakes. Another reference to nature can be seen in the colour palette opted by the designers; most of the time consisting of lighter, softer, pale colours. In this case we can see a contrast between Scandinavian Design and the International Style, the latter being considered as too cold (due to the use of material such as steel and concrete).

The Aalto Vase - designed by Alvar Aalto 

Finland's thousands of lakes, which served as
an inspiration for the design of the Aalto Vase

The period after the war was hard for the most industrialized and wealthy countries of the time, let alone those limited and lacking in resources. This period highlighted an essential part of Scandinavian Design: making designs that were accessible to all. This is the primary reason why this movement came to be known also for its 'democratic design'. More-over, this can be seen later on during the 20th century when Scandinavian countries were introduced to the machine age. Rather than giving in to soul-less mass-produced objects, machines were used to further enhance designs which gave importance primarily to function and accessibility, while also preserving the beauty of the object in itself. 

The following are several examples of notable works from the Scandinavian Design movement: 

Top (left to right):

Artichoke - Poul Henningsen, Painio Chair - Alvor Aalto , Egg Chair - Arne Jacobsen, The Ant Chair - Arne Jacobsen,

PantonChair - Verner Panton

Bottom (left to right):

Chinese Chair - Hans J. Wegner, The Ericofon - Hugo Blomberg and Ralph Lysell, Eva (armchair) - Bruno Mathsson,

Globe Chair - Eero Aarnio, Tulip Chair - Eero Saarinen

References

Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: http://michelangelo.pixel-online.org/files/Manual_of_fine_arts/New%20Manual%2013%20scandinavia.pdf [Accessed 5 Jan. 2015].

Dawson and Clinton, (2014). A Brief History of Scandinavian Design. [online] Available at: http://www.dawson-clinton.com/news/brief-history-scandinavian-design/ [Accessed 5 Jan. 2015].

Eyþórsdóttir, K. (2011). The Story Of Scandinavian Design: Combining Function and Aesthetics - Smashing Magazine. [online] Smashing Magazine. Available at: http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2011/06/13/the-story-of-scandinavian-design-combining-function-and-aesthetics/ [Accessed 5 Jan. 2015].

Fiell, C. and Fiell, P. (2002). Scandinavian design. Köln: Taschen.

McDermott, C. (2007). Design: The Key Concepts. Routledge.

Scandinavia-design.fr, (2015). SCANDINAVIAN DESIGN - brief description and examples. [online] Available at: http://www.scandinavia-design.fr/design-scandinave_en.html [Accessed 5 Jan. 2015].

South Granville: Vancouver Shopping Neighbourhood, (2012). The Alvar Aalto Vase Collection: More than 7 decades modern. [online] Available at: http://www.southgranville.org/the-alvar-aalto-vase-collection-more-than-7-decades-modern/ [Accessed 5 Jan. 2015]. 

The Nordic Movement, (2011). Scandinavian Modern: What's new in Scandinavian furniture design?. [online] Available at: https://lbstadler.wordpress.com/2011/08/06/scandinavian-modern-whats-new-in-scandinavian-furniture-design/ [Accessed 5 Jan. 2015]. 

The Urban Pig, (2013). A Little History of Scandinavian Design. [online] Available at: http://theurbanpig.wordpress.com/2013/04/09/scandinaviandesign/ [Accessed 5 Jan. 2015]. 

Worldguide.eu, (2015). Characteristics of Scandinavian Design & Furniture - Scandinavian Design - Design. [online] Available at: http://www.worldguide.eu/wg/index.php?StoryID=148&ArticleID=23189&ChapterID=2 [Accessed 5 Jan. 2015].

Organic Design

A segment of the International Style focuses on what has become known as organic design. Taking inspiration from nature, designers adopted a humanizing approach to design. Their philosophy was based on the belief that there should be harmony between the natural surroundings and human habitats, so much so that they become one. The term organic design was popularized by architect and designer Frank Lloyd Wright. 

Organic design is characterized mainly by the lack of harsh edges; designers who opted for this style used smooth lines and sculptural forms, always keeping in mind the surrounding environment. A holistic approach was taken when designing - not only making sure that the outer area of a building (if taking architecture as an example) was in harmony with its natural surrounding environment, but also that the interior elements flow and fit in with the building in itself, thus creating a relationship between all the elements. 

One of the most prominent architectural masterpieces of the time which reflect what is mentioned above is the house designed by Frank Lloyd Wright himself - Fallingwater. Located in Pennsylvania, the house is built over a waterfall in a natural reserve. It was built specifically in such a way so that the waterfall is not an added feature, but actually integrated as part of the house itself. Keeping in line with the organic and natural theme, the house was located in such a way so as to provided with natural sunlight for most of the day, thus eliminating the unnecessary use of non-renewable energy. The house itself was made from a combination of natural as well as industrial material. If one observes the interiors of the house itself, as can be seen in the images below, one can visualize what is meant by creating a harmony between the natural environment, the building itself and its interior.

Fallingwaters - Frank Lloyd Wright (1935)

Fallingwaters - Frank Lloyd Wright (1935)

Organic design principles were adopted not only by architects, but also by designers such as Ray and Charles Eames, Alvar Aalto, Eero Saarinen, Arne Jacobsen and Paul Henningsen. It is worth noting that there is a cross reference to Scandinavian design since the latter four designers mentioned here are Scandinavian by birth. The Scandinavian design movement is known for its designs inspired by nature as well as the extensive use and manipulation of natural material.

Tulip Chair - Eero Saarinen

Womb Chair and Ottoman - Eero Saarinen

Egg Chair - Arne Jacobsen

Swan Chair - Arne Jacobsen

La Chaise - Ray and Charles Eames

References

ArchDaily, (2015). Architecture Photography: interior2 (60116). [online] Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/60022/ad-classics-fallingwater-frank-lloyd-wright/interior2-5/ [Accessed 13 Jan. 2015].

Fallingwater.org, (2015). Fallingwater | Home. [online] Available at: http://www.fallingwater.org/ [Accessed 13 Jan. 2015].

Interior Design Ideas, (2015). Live in Falling Water, Frank Lloyd Wright’s Masterpiece. [online] Available at: http://www.home-designing.com/2009/10/live-in-falling-water-frank-lloyd-wrights-masterpiece [Accessed 13 Jan. 2015].

Quezi.com, (2009). Quezi » What is organic design?. [online] Available at: http://quezi.com/5264 [Accessed 13 Jan. 2015].

Slideshare.net, (2015). Key Movements in Design. [online] Available at: http://www.slideshare.net/markrotondella/key-movements-in-design [Accessed 13 Jan. 2015].

Streamline Moderne

Streamline Moderne, or what we refer to as 'Streamlined Design', was a style that emerged and was highly popular in America in the period between the 1930s and 1950s. It is considered to be a style that evolved from the Art Deco style of the 1920s. 

Having said this, certain characteristics show a distinction between the two movements, such as can be seen in the societal and cultural changes taking place during the respective time periods. Designs of the Art Deco movement focused around the use of bold colours, over-the-top ornamentation, geometric shapes and sharp angles. This style could be seen as a reflection of the lavish lifestyle of the Americans in the roaring twenties. On the contrary, the 1930s gave way to the Great Depression, and with it came a change in style. Sharp angles were replaced by clean and minimalist designs, flowing curves, rounded corners and muted colours.

Scooter displayed at the Philbrook Museum of Art

Streamlined designs are true to the definition of the word streamlining, which means shaping an object in such a way so as to reduce the amount of resistance it encounters when it travels through a medium. The teardrop shape was found to be the best form for doing this, and thus this shape is generally used as a reference when discussing streamlined designs. 

Technology and the economy were two important factors which highly influenced designers during the time. As mentioned previously, the 1930s brought about the harsh conditions of a national depression; a time when people could not afford to spend as easily as during the 1920s, and rationalizing was the order of the day. Instead of eliminating all the beauty from designs and opting for function, designers wanted to create a visually appealing exterior that would not be too costly, and that is exactly what streamlined designs reflect. Due to the second World War, technology improved and with this came about the manufacture of material such as aluminium, stainless steel and chrome. This proved to be quite useful since these were inexpensive and could be mass produced, and thus a large majority of the designers were manufactured using these materials.

Pencil Sharpener designed by Raymond Loewy (1933)

Streamlining was not only applied to machinery associated with aerodynamics, such as cars, airplanes and trains; but it was also applied to static pieces such as architecture as well as industrial designs of household items such as toasters and radios. The aim behind these designs involved a philosophy which revolved around the view of the people in terms of consumerism. Design of a generally horizontal orientation, made out of sleek, shiny material, and which screamed modern and technological made the product in question more desirable to the consumer. This stems from their need of a source of hope after a harsh period of national crisis.

An example of streamlining in architecture:
Greyhound bus terminal in Cleveland, Ohio

Zephyr digital clock designed by Kem Weber (1934)

Electrolux vacuum cleaner designed by the Lurelle Guild (1937)

An example of streamlining in Maltese architecture:

The image above shows a automobile showroom in Malta which in my opinion is an example of streamlining as applied to architecture. We can see key characteristics associated with Streamline Moderne such as the horizontal orientation, rounded edges and smooth surfaces of the structure. 

References

Answers.com, (2015). Streamline Moderne Architecture: Features and Influences. [online] Available at: http://architecture.answers.com/history/streamline-moderne-architecture-features-and-influences [Accessed 10 Jan. 2015].

Architecture.knoji.com, (2015). Streamlined Design: Modernity in America. [online] Available at: https://architecture.knoji.com/streamlined-design-modernity-in-america/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2015].

Classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com, (2015). [online] Available at: https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/973/flashcards/2008973/png/131353003886842.png [Accessed 10 Jan. 2015].

Rose, C. (2006). Greyhound bus terminal, Cleveland, Ohio. [image] Available at: http://www.flickr.com/photos/73416633@N00/251476760 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2015].

The Times of Malta, (2012). A true example of Streamline Moderne. [online] Available at: http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20120906/environment/A-true-example-of-Streamline-Moderne.435799 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2015].

Villarreal, I. (n.d.). Philbrook Museum of Art Features Exhibition American Streamlined Design: The World of Tomorrow. [online] Artdaily.com. Available at: http://artdaily.com/news/44865/Philbrook-Museum-of-Art-Features-Exhibition-American-Streamlined-Design--The-World-of-Tomorrow#.VL2jl0fF-So [Accessed 10 Jan. 2015].

The International Style

The International Style was mainly one which focused on architecture. It developed in Europe and the United States in the 1920s and 1930s, and later it also spread to countries like Finland, Norway and Denmark to create what is now known as the Scandinavian Design movement. The International Style consisted of a large number of architects and designers which include Eileen Gray, Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier among others.

LC2 and LC3 Grand Confort - Le Crobusier

The style came to be due to a number of reasons. For example, the excessive use of decoration and more-over, a mash-up of decorative elements from different periods and styles of the past which they wanted to eliminate, as well as the development of new technologies which facilitated the use of material such as glass, iron, steel and concrete. The philosophy behind the style was to create rationalist and disciplined designs, ones which expressed the potential of the material used and which created a harmony between technology and function. 

Seagram building in New York -  Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 

The characteristics of designs produced in line with the International Style were said to be cold and soul-less. Rectilinear forms were preferred; glass curtain walls were a must; open interior space; flat surfaces; no sign of ornamentation. High-rise buildings were constructed in a sleek and boxy manner. These qualities gave way to the construction of the first skyscrapers in the United States. 

Many criticized the International Style for the lack of individuality in design. The Style was more adapted towards those who preferred a repetitive style. I personally think that this is true; if I was to be presented with a handful of different images of skyscrapers I wouldn't be able to tell the difference between them all. Apart from certain elements and the personal touch of the architect in question, the designs all look relatively the same.

Mcgraw-Hill building in New York - Raymond Hood

As can be seen from today's America, the style was generally more applied to industrial building rather than houses. Even though this style represented the American symbol of corporate power and outlined the height of the modern movement in the United States and Europe, after a number of years architects and designers wanted to explore the possibility of more innovation and decoration in their designs rather than be constrained by the rigidity and limitation of the International Style. This resulted in the birth of another movement which came to be known as Postmodernism. 

References

Architecture, Landscape, and Urban Design, (2011). International. [online] Available at: http://architecturestyles.org/international/ [Accessed 9 Jan. 2015].

Craven, J. (2015). Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture. [online] About.com Home. Available at: http://architecture.about.com/od/20thcenturytrends/ig/Modern-Architecture/International-Style.htm [Accessed 9 Jan. 2015].

Encyclopedia Britannica, (2014). International Style | architecture. [online] Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/291280/International-Style [Accessed 9 Jan. 2015].